The Prehistory of the Peak District: A Comprehensive Journey Through Time and Sites

This article explores the prehistoric period of the Peak District in detail, highlighting every documented prehistoric site within this remarkable region.

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The Prehistory of the Peak District: A Comprehensive Journey Through Time and Sites

1. Introduction
2. The Palaeolithic Era: Dawn of Human Presence
3. The Mesolithic Era: Adaption and Innovation
4. The Neolithic Era: The Dawn of Agriculture
5. The Bronze Age: Metallurgy and Social Complexity
6. The Iron Are: Fortifications and Tribal Societies
7. Social and Economic Developments in Prehistoric Peak DIstrict
8. Rituals and Ceramonies
9. Trade and Exchange
10. Conclusion

1. Introduction

The Peak District, with its dramatic landscapes and rich history, stands as a testament to the endurance and ingenuity of human civilisation. From the earliest days of human habitation, this region has been a hub of activity, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological sites that offer glimpses into its prehistoric past. This article explores the prehistoric period of the Peak District in detail, highlighting every documented prehistoric site within this remarkable region. By delving into the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age periods, we can uncover the evolution of human societies and the legacy they left behind.

2. The Palaeolithic Era: Dawn of Human Presence

The Palaeolithic era, or Old Stone Age, marks the earliest period of human activity in the Peak District, dating from approximately 2.6 million years ago to around 10,000 BCE. This era witnessed the first appearance of early humans who were primarily hunter-gatherers. The evidence of Palaeolithic occupation in the Peak District, while limited, provides a crucial understanding of the region's earliest inhabitants.

2.1 Key Sites and Discoveries

Creswell Crags
Situated on the Derbyshire-Nottinghamshire border, Creswell Crags is a limestone gorge rich with evidence of Palaeolithic occupation. Discoveries include flint tools and animal bones, indicating its use as a seasonal hunting ground. The site is also renowned for its cave art, dating back around 13,000 years, depicting various animals. The art found here is one of the most northern examples of Ice Age cave art in Europe, showing the sophisticated cognitive and artistic abilities of early humans.

Robin Hood’s Cave
Located within Creswell Crags, this cave has yielded numerous artefacts, including flint tools and remains of large mammals such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and reindeer. These finds provide insights into the life and environment of early humans in the region, who had to adapt to the harsh climatic conditions of the time.

Church Hole Cave
Another significant site within Creswell Crags, Church Hole Cave is famous for its extensive collection of Ice Age engravings. The engravings include depictions of birds, ibex, and enigmatic symbols. These artworks provide a unique glimpse into the symbolic thinking and cultural practices of the Upper Palaeolithic people.

3. The Mesolithic Era: Adaptation and Innovation

The Mesolithic era, or Middle Stone Age, spanning from about 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE, was a time of significant environmental changes and technological advancements following the last Ice Age. The warming climate led to the retreat of glaciers and the expansion of forests, which in turn influenced the lifestyles and subsistence strategies of the Mesolithic communities.

3.1 Key Sites and Discoveries

Deepcar
Situated in South Yorkshire, near the boundary of the Peak District, Deepcar is a notable Mesolithic site where archaeologists have discovered microliths – small, finely crafted stone tools used for hunting and processing food. These microliths were often mounted on wooden shafts to create composite tools such as arrows and spears, demonstrating the advanced technological skills of Mesolithic people.

Gardom’s Edge
Located in Derbyshire, Gardom’s Edge provides evidence of Mesolithic activity, including flint tools and hearths, suggesting the presence of temporary camps where hunter-gatherer groups would have stayed. The site also features a range of postholes and stone settings, indicating that Mesolithic people may have constructed simple shelters or structures.

Lismore Fields
Although primarily known for its later Neolithic and Bronze Age remains, Lismore Fields near Buxton also contains evidence of Mesolithic occupation. Excavations have uncovered flint tools and waste flakes, indicating that the site was used for tool production and maintenance. This suggests that Mesolithic communities were highly mobile, moving through the landscape to exploit different resources seasonally.

Langwith Cave
Situated near the border of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, Langwith Cave has yielded a variety of Mesolithic artefacts, including flint microliths and animal bones. The presence of hearths suggests that the cave was used as a temporary shelter by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.

4. The Neolithic Era: The Dawn of Agriculture

The Neolithic era, or New Stone Age, began around 4,000 BCE and marked the advent of farming, which fundamentally transformed human societies in the Peak District. The shift from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled agricultural way of life brought about significant social, economic, and technological changes.

4.1 Key Sites and Discoveries

Arbor Low
Known as the "Stonehenge of the North," Arbor Low is a large Neolithic henge and stone circle located in Derbyshire. It consists of an oval stone circle with a central stone cove, surrounded by a substantial earthwork bank and ditch. The site is thought to have been used for ceremonial and ritual purposes, reflecting the complex spiritual beliefs of Neolithic communities.

The Bull Ring
Situated near Dove Holes, this Neolithic henge features a circular bank and ditch with two entrances. The Bull Ring indicates ritualistic and ceremonial use during the Neolithic period. Excavations have revealed various artefacts, including flint tools and pottery, suggesting that the site may have been a focal point for communal gatherings and activities.

Nine Ladies Stone Circle
Found on Stanton Moor, this stone circle consists of nine upright stones and is believed to have been used for ceremonial purposes during the late Neolithic period. The surrounding area is rich with other prehistoric features, including cairns and burial mounds, indicating that Stanton Moor and the Nine Ladies was an important ritual landscape.

Gib Hill
Located adjacent to Arbor Low, Gib Hill is a burial mound that dates back to the Neolithic era. It is considered to be one of the earliest examples of a chambered tomb in the region. Excavations have uncovered human remains and grave goods, such as pottery and stone tools, highlighting the burial practices and social structures of Neolithic communities.

Lismore Fields
In addition to its Mesolithic evidence, Lismore Fields also contains significant Neolithic remains. Excavations have revealed the remains of several rectangular timber buildings, which are among the earliest known examples of Neolithic houses in Britain. These structures suggest that the inhabitants practiced farming and animal husbandry, indicating a transition to a more settled lifestyle.

5. The Bronze Age: Metallurgy and Social Complexity

The Bronze Age, spanning from approximately 2,300 BCE to 800 BCE, brought advancements in metalworking and changes in social structures. The ability to create bronze tools and weapons led to increased agricultural productivity and the development of more complex societies.

5.1 Key Sites and Discoveries

Minninglow
This site in Derbyshire features a series of burial mounds dating back to the Bronze Age. Excavations have revealed multiple burials along with grave goods such as pottery and bronze artefacts. The presence of these items at Minninglow indicates the emergence of social hierarchies and the significance of status and wealth during this period.

Tissington
Near the village of Tissington, several Bronze Age barrows have been discovered, containing burials with grave goods, including pottery, tools, and ornaments. These finds highlight the importance of burial practices and the belief in an afterlife.

Swinscoe
Excavations at Swinscoe have uncovered Bronze Age artefacts including pottery and tools, suggesting the area was inhabited during this period. The site provides evidence of domestic activities, indicating that the inhabitants engaged in farming and craft production.

Bole Hill
Located in the Hope Valley, Bole Hill features a Bronze Age round barrow that was excavated in the 19th century, revealing cremated human remains and pottery. The site offers insights into the funerary practices of the Bronze Age communities and their beliefs about death and the afterlife.

Beeley Moor
This area contains several Bronze Age barrows and cairns, which have yielded a range of artefacts, including pottery, stone tools, and metal objects. The distribution of these burial sites suggests that Beeley Moor was an important ritual landscape during the Bronze Age.

Stanton Moor
In addition to the Nine Ladies Stone Circle, Stanton Moor contains numerous Bronze Age features, including cairns, barrows, and standing stones. Excavations have uncovered a wealth of artefacts, providing evidence of the site's long-term use and significance as a ceremonial centre.

Doll Tor
This small stone circle near Stanton Moor dates to the late Bronze Age. Excavations have revealed cremated human remains and various grave goods, suggesting that Doll Tor was used for funerary rites and ancestor worship.

Ball Cross Farm
Located near Bakewell, Ball Cross Farm has yielded evidence of Bronze Age occupation, including pottery and flint tools. The presence of these artefacts indicates that the area was used for both domestic and agricultural purposes during this period.

6. The Iron Age: Fortifications and Tribal Societies

The Iron Age, beginning around 800 BCE and lasting until the Roman invasion in 43 CE, saw the development of tribal societies and the construction of hillforts. The introduction of ironworking revolutionised tool and weapon production, leading to significant social and economic changes.

FIN COP in Derbyshire: 3d Digital Terrain Image Courtesy of Rouven Meidlinger

6.1 Key Sites and Discoveries

Mam Tor
Known as the "Shivering Mountain," Mam Tor is one of the most prominent Iron Age hillforts in the Peak District. Its massive earthworks and strategic location indicate its importance as a tribal centre. The hillfort features a series of ramparts and ditches, which would have provided defence against potential invaders. Excavations have uncovered evidence of roundhouses within the fort, suggesting a thriving community.

Carl Wark
This hillfort, located on Hathersage Moor, features substantial defensive earthworks and evidence of occupation during the Iron Age. The large stone ramparts and ditches at Carl Wark indicate its defensive nature. The site offers panoramic views of the surrounding landscape, providing strategic advantages for its inhabitants.

Fin Cop
Situated above Monsal Dale, Fin Cop is an Iron Age hillfort that has yielded evidence of a massacre, with numerous skeletons discovered in a ditch, suggesting violent conflict during this period. The remains include women and children, indicating a tragic event that disrupted the community. The site’s defensive features include multiple banks and ditches, which would have been formidable obstacles to attackers.

Arbor Low (Reuse)
Although primarily a Neolithic site, Arbor Low was reused during the Iron Age, indicating its continued significance as a ceremonial site. This reuse underscores the site's long-term importance in the region's spiritual and social landscape. Artefacts from this period include iron tools and pottery, demonstrating the community's adaptation to new technologies.

Cratcliffe Tor
Cratcliffe Tor features an Iron Age hillfort with defensive walls and evidence of habitation, providing further insights into the tribal societies of the period. The fort’s strategic location and substantial fortifications highlight the importance of defence and territorial control during the Iron Age.

Harthill Moor
Located near Youlgreave, Harthill Moor features an Iron Age settlement with evidence of roundhouses and other structures. The site has yielded a variety of artefacts, including pottery and iron tools, indicating a well-established community.

Ballidon Moor
Ballidon Moor near Minninglow contains several Iron Age sites, including enclosures and field systems, suggesting a landscape extensively used for farming and settlement. Excavations have revealed evidence of agricultural activities and domestic life, providing a comprehensive view of Iron Age society.

7. Social and Economic Developments in Prehistoric Peak District

7.1 The Evolution of Settlements

Throughout the prehistoric periods, the nature of settlements in the Peak District evolved significantly. From the temporary camps of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers to the permanent agricultural villages of the Neolithic, and finally to the fortified hillforts of the Iron Age, each phase of prehistory left distinct marks on the landscape.

Paleolithic and Mesolithic Camps
These were often temporary shelters or caves used seasonally by small groups. The primary evidence of these camps comes from flint tools and animal bones, which indicate hunting and processing activities.

Neolithic Villages
The introduction of farming led to the establishment of more permanent settlements. Timber structures, such as those found at Lismore Fields, reflect a transition to a sedentary lifestyle. These villages often included communal buildings and storage facilities, suggesting more complex social organisations.

Bronze Age and Iron Age Hillforts
These sites reflect increased social stratification and the need for defence. Hillforts like Mam Tor and Carl Wark served as centres of power and community organisation. They provided protection, administrative centres, and places for trade and social gatherings.

7.2 Agricultural Practices

The shift to agriculture during the Neolithic period brought about profound changes in the way communities interacted with the landscape.

Early Farming
Neolithic farmers cultivated crops such as wheat and barley and domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and pigs. The establishment of fields and pastures transformed the natural environment, leading to more settled communities.

Bronze Age Innovations
Advancements in metalworking allowed for more efficient tools, such as bronze sickles and plows, which improved agricultural productivity. This period also saw the construction of large field systems and enclosures, indicating organised farming practices.

Iron Age Agriculture
The introduction of iron tools further enhanced agricultural efficiency. Iron plows and sickles were more durable and effective than their bronze counterparts, allowing for more extensive and intensive farming.

8. Rituals and Ceremonies

Throughout prehistory, ritual and ceremonial practices played a crucial role in the lives of Peak District communities. The numerous henges, stone circles, and burial mounds found in the region highlight the importance of these activities. Although there is now debate as to whether historians simply label things they don't understand as 'ceramonial'.

Neolithic Ceremonies
Sites like Arbor Low and the Bull Ring served as focal points for communal rituals. These gatherings likely involved feasting, trading, and the performance of religious rites. The construction of these monumental structures required significant labor and cooperation, reflecting the social cohesion and spiritual beliefs of the time.

Bronze Age Burials
The construction of barrows and cairns, such as those at Minninglow and Beeley Moor, indicates the continued importance of burial rituals. These sites often contained grave goods, suggesting beliefs in an afterlife and the significance of social status.

Iron Age Rituals
Hillforts and other settlements often included ritual spaces, such as shrines or designated areas for ceremonies. The reuse of Neolithic sites like Arbor Low during the Iron Age indicates a continuity of spiritual traditions.

9. Trade and Exchange

The Peak District's rich natural resources, including flint, lead, and other minerals, made it an important area for trade and exchange throughout prehistory.

Mesolithic Networks
Even during the Mesolithic period, there is evidence of long-distance trade networks. Microliths and other artefacts found in the Peak District were often made from flint sourced from distant regions, indicating the movement of goods and ideas.

Neolithic Trade
The establishment of farming communities increased the production of surplus goods, which could be traded for other items. Pottery, stone tools, and raw materials such as flint and stone were exchanged over considerable distances.

Bronze Age Metalwork
The advent of bronze metallurgy created new opportunities for trade. Bronze tools and weapons were highly valued, and the Peak District's mineral resources, particularly lead and copper, were crucial for metal production. Evidence of trade includes the distribution of Bronze Age artefacts across the region.

Iron Age Exchange
Ironworking further expanded trade networks. Iron tools and weapons were essential for agriculture and warfare, and their production and distribution became increasingly important. Hillforts often served as centres for trade, where goods were exchanged and redistributed.

9. Environmental Impact

The prehistoric inhabitants of the Peak District significantly altered the landscape through their activities. Deforestation, agriculture, and the construction of monumental structures all had lasting impacts on the environment.

Deforestation
The clearing of forests for agriculture and settlement began in the Neolithic and continued through the Bronze and Iron Ages. This deforestation had long-term effects on the local ecosystem, leading to changes in soil composition and biodiversity.

Agricultural Practices
The establishment of fields and pastures transformed the natural landscape. The introduction of domesticated animals also affected the environment, as grazing patterns and manure contributed to soil fertility.

Monument Construction
The building of henges, stone circles, and barrows required significant modification of the landscape. Large earthworks and the transportation of stones would have altered the natural terrain and required coordinated labor and resource management.

10. Conclusion

The Peak District's prehistory is a rich and complex narrative woven through its landscape, marked by numerous significant archaeological sites. From the earliest hunter-gatherers of the Palaeolithic era to the sophisticated tribal societies of the Iron Age, each period left its indelible mark on the region. The legacy of these ancient communities is preserved in the form of stone circles, burial mounds, hillforts, and countless artefacts, offering a fascinating window into the distant past. As we continue to explore and study these prehistoric sites, we deepen our understanding of the rich and diverse history that has shaped the Peak District into the remarkable region it is today.

The prehistoric sites of the Peak District are not just remnants of the past; they are integral to understanding the development of human societies and their interaction with the environment. Each site offers unique insights into the lives, beliefs, and innovations of our ancestors. By preserving and studying these Derbyshire sites, we honour the rich cultural heritage of the Peak District and ensure that future generations can learn from and appreciate this remarkable history.

In summary, the prehistory of the Peak District is a testament to human resilience and ingenuity. From the Palaeolithic hunters who roamed its landscapes to the Iron Age communities who built impressive hillforts, each period of prehistory contributed to the region's rich tapestry of history. The archaeological sites scattered across the Peak District provide invaluable evidence of this long and varied past, inviting us to explore and understand the roots of human civilisation in this remarkable region.

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Towns of the Peaks

Peak District
Ashbourne
Bakewell
Buxton
Castleton
Chatsworth
Eyam
Haddon
Hathersage
Matlock